Tools of Christian Missionaries
Tools of Christian Missionaries: Influence of Education and Medical health among the Zo people in Chin Hills[i]
Dr Pum Khan Pau
Christian missionaries were some of the most influential actors which brought significant changes in the host environment. They came as stranger, but psychologically and professionally prepared, to an unfamiliar environment with the objective to bring transition in the host society. The primary tools often used by them to facilitate transition were the introduction of education and medical health. It is from this perspective that the present paper seeks to study the influences of education and medical health in order to understand the whole gamut of Christian conversion among the Zo people in colonial Chin Hills.
The earliest Christian missionaries in Chin Hills, Rev. Arthur E. Carson and his wife Laura Hardin Carson from the American Baptist Mission, reached Haka on 15 March, 1899. They first laid the foundation of Christianity in Chin hills. Though it took some time to gain substantial results, ultimately it was this missionary couple and their successors who apparently brought spiritual as well as physical enlightenment to the indigenous people. The socio-economic, cultural and religious developments of the Zo people today can thus be truly attributed to the works of Christian missionaries who first spread the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
Missionary activities may be closely intertwined with educational and medical activities. One of the foremost tasks of the missionaries among the Zo people was to heal the soul as well as the body. “Building a house and a schoolhouse were the first concerns of the Carsons’,[ii] wrote Robert G. Johnson, which clearly underscored the importance of education to evangelical work. He further says that Carson was very much concern about extending medical services to the people who were badly in need of them in order to bring them to Christianity. In his letter to the Mission Board, Carson addressed:
Every disease, and they are heir to them all, is assigned to possession or influence of evil spirits, and sacrifice and feasting is the remedy…We are sure that a medical missionary, beside the immense amount of suffering he could relieve, could unlock the hearts of this simple people as no other could.[iii]
Dr Erik Hjalmar East, a Swedish born American, was the first medical missionary, who reached the Chin Hills on 22 March, 1902. Barely after staying for two months Dr East soon left the Chin Hills because of illness. His first impression during his brief stay, however, intelligibly stressed the need for medical work:
My first impression was that the Chins certainly were in need of help, as the blind lame, wounded, fever stricken, lepers and skin diseases came. Secondly, I was convinced that this people were in need of a thorough cleansing from top to toe as I had never seen human beings so completely encrusted with a covering of dirt. In the third place I was convinced that the soap I brought would come in handy and more so as I was told that they never wash themselves or their children. [iv]
On 28 December, 1903, Dr East, this time with his new bride Emily Johnson, returned to Haka with a strong conviction “to break down the influence of the priests and the witch doctor”. He started giving treatments to sick persons, distributing drugs to villages and at the same time preaching the Gospel. In 1904 alone treatments were given to 4,000 patients. Dispensaries were opened up in important villages. Medicines were stored in schools where teachers, who had been trained to give treatment on certain common diseases, also performed basic treatment to patients. The most common diseases were malaria, rheumatism, toothache, goiter, fever, eye trouble etc.
Since it became quite expensive and difficult for the medical doctors to make tour to the villages it was proposed that the sick persons should also be brought to the Haka hospital for treatment. The Emily Tyzzer Memorial Hospital at Haka was established in 1907. The hospital, however, did not really serve the purpose as it was believed. Report of 1909 revealed that only 21 inpatients had been registered at the hospital that year whereas there were more than 5000 new patients on record. “The reason for so few have availed themselves of the hospital accommodation”, wrote Dr East, “is due to the fact that it is looked upon as a calamity to be away from the hearthstone in case that death should come while away. To be happy after death a Chin must die in his home and by his fireside.”[v] Besides the people also had “prejudiced against a man who claims to be a medicine chief and cannot cure all his chronic troubles with a pill or by rubbing something on two or three times”. A time comes when they lost all hopes in their traditional methods. “They come to us as a last resort”, lamented East, “when hope, means and strength are absolutely gone.”[vi]
Education also played significant role in evangelism. The first school was introduced by Carson at Haka in June 1900, which was later closed down because of strong opposition from a Burman sergeant of the Military Police.[vii] It was, however, reopened on 21 March 1902 after the arrival of Dr Erik Hjalmar East, a medical doctor, and Saya Shwe Zan, another Karen preacher and teacher. That same year a second school was opened at Tedim with one Po Ku as the teacher followed by the third school at Khuasak in the Tedim Subdivision on 31 March 1904. It was at Khuasak village, which Dr East described “one of the most Godless places on the earth”[viii], that wonderfully the first converts —Thuam Hang and his wife Dim Khaw Cing, and Pau Suan and his wife Kham Ciang—were gained. On hearing this great news Dr E. H. East, who later baptised them,[ix] jubilantly exclaimed: “Truly, when this letter came from Schwe Zan, Mrs East and I laughed and cried and shouted: ‘the King of Glory had surely made His entrance into the Chin Hills. The bells of heaven were ringing as the Shepherd brought home the lost sheep.’ It was too wonderful!”.[x]
Having been strongly encouraged by the permission given by the Kamhau Chief Hau Cin Khup of Tonzang, a school was started there in 1904. The Chief also gave permission to build a schoolhouse and a teacher’s house. Po Ku, the Karen teacher started the school with two students namely Son Vung and Hen Za Kam from Tuitum village. These two students later became the first Christian from Tonzang area. They were baptised by Dr East on 27 February 1906 in the presence of Chief Hau Cin Khup and all the villagers. The same year another school was started at Zokhua with Saya Ma Kya as teacher. Thus by 1905 there were altogether four schools with an attendance of 132 pupils. The small number of attendance also shows that there was an economic disadvantage in having children to go school because by sending it parents lost the service of their children.
In the early stages of its growth there were no girls enrolled in the school. In fact, Zo people seemed to have seen no value in the education of women. According to them girls had to work in the fields and in the home and so could not be spared. Educating a girl was nonproductive, for they thought girls would only get married, have a family, and be occupied in agricultural and domestic chores. Besides they considered educated girls would not be properly submissive to their husbands. Knowing this, Laura Carson devoted her considerable energies to getting hold of the girls:
My plan (she wrote) is to attract them at first by starting a sewing class and telling the girls that as soon as one is able to cut out and make a jacket neatly she shall have it. While teaching them to sew I hope to be able to teach them a good many other things and to get them interested in learning to read and so to open up a new world to them.[xi]
Laura Carson succeeded in getting the girls in her sewing classes. Mah Seh a woman teacher was brought up at Haka. There was, however, only one girl student in 1906.
When the Baptist Mission Burma in Boston reorganised the Chin Mission into the northern and southern regions on 1 October 1909, a second station was established at Tedim and John Herbert Cope, who recently arrived at Haka, was placed in charge of it. Unlike the situation in Haka[xii] there was considerable opposition by the chiefs to schools in Falam. What the chief of Seipi village told the Superintendent and Dr East at a conference in June 1909 explains why: “Chong In Kadu Vantsung Jesu Kan dulo. Ar le vock Kan tshoi lo a stshun Kan thi lai, she ranga Jesu thorng Kan duh la” (school I want, the Heavenly Jesus I don’t want. If we do not sacrifice chickens and pigs we die, therefore, I don’t want the Jesus custom).[xiii] Evidently, the chief wanted education without Christianity to which the missionaries could not agree. Dr East thus told the Superintendent that “we would not for a moment consider any school without religious teaching, and that our prime object was and is to spread the Gospel, and while doing so, we are willing to educate the people also”. The Superintendent remained unmoved. The school at Laizo and Lumbang were accordingly closed. Disappointed with the Government attitude Dr East wrote:
The whole thing goes to show that even here, among wild tribes, the powers that be representing a (sic) Christian Missionaries are not always as they should be; but on the contrary try to block their work wherever possible by veiled diplomatic tricks, for such I am sure this was. But we have no right to blame the British Government, as in the farflung provinces it usually depends upon some unfriendly sub-officials who must elevate himself by hindering such as are willing to rescue the perishing and care for the dying.[xiv]
When Dr East left the Chin Hills on October 1910 for failure of his health there were 5 primary schools with 231 students including 20 girls. The medium of instruction at that time was Burmese.
In 1911 there were 6 primary schools of which two registered with the Government namely, Khuasak (I January 1911) and Haka schools. However, there was a sharp decline in their number. In 1912 only two schools remained functioning. The number of students dropped from 180 in 1911 to a mere 60 in 1912. It is possible that the four unregistered night schools ceased to function; one of the causes of the decline was certainly the opposition of Chief Hau Cin Khup who gave permission for the school but became nervous with the growth of Christianity in his tract. He was uncompromising towards Christians and even ordered Po Ku, the teacher, out of the village. He also dismantled the Tonzang School which eventually ceased to exist.
The functioning of the schools was again interrupted by the Haka uprising of 1917[xv] that resulted in the closure of a few schools. But these reopened again after its suppression and in 1920 there were 6 primary schools with 175 students and 11 teachers. In 1922 the Haka school was upgraded to middle school (7th standard) and the following year Khuasak school was also raised to secondary standard. In 1935 the statistics of the educational schools show that there remained only 3 primary schools with the Missions having 75 pupils. The fall in the number this time was due mainly to Government’s absorption of the schools.
It was nearly after a decade of the first Mission school that the British Government took some interest in education. The first Government primary school was established at Falam in 1908. In the month of January in the following year the Government sanctioned an allowance of Rs. 2 per month for each student. The Government too started providing pupils with meals which had been the long demand of the Zos. This remarkably improved the attendance.[xvi]
On 25 June 1909 a Government Vernacular School was opened at Tedim.[xvii] In 1913 a boarding school was introduced in Tedim. The opening of Government schools adversely affected the Mission schools and Dr East lamented that this totally wiped out the “golden opportunity” for the missionaries.[xviii] There was much rivalry and little cooperation between the Government and the Mission in the early years of Dr East’s period. While the Missions employed Christian Karen teachers who strictly followed their policy to inculcate Christian faith through teaching and preaching, Buddhist Burmans and Hindu or Muslim Indians who were in the service of the Government also became a stumbling block to the progress of education. Even, as Dr East remarked: “A certain Roman Catholic Government official did all he could secretly to undercut the mission program, while feigning friendship on the surface.”[xix] Matters improved under Rev. John Herbert Cope who began to work in collaboration with the Government. He established personal friendship with the officials at all levels including Burmese and Indian. After 1921 the Government began to take a keener interest in the education provided by the Mission. The attitude of the Chiefs and headmen too gradually changed and they became, after many of them were converted, helpful to the Mission.
In June 1921, Colonel L E L Burne, the Superintendent and the Battalion Commander, held a meeting at Falam to discuss the merits of change of the medium of instruction in the schools. It was attended by Herbert Cope, and the Assistant Superintendents. Burne reported the view of the conference:
The opinion of the majority was that the present system of education was not the best suited to the needs of the people of these hills, and that Chins should replace Burmese as the medium of instruction. Burmese would not be abolished altogether, except in the village schools, but would be taken as a second language.
The technical school at Falam continues to impart instruction in carpentry and masonry, and the question of extending the subjects to be taught is receiving attention.[xx]
Writing to his friends Cope also said:
I am very glad that the present officers are advocating the education of the Chins in their own language. Now we are educating the Chins through Burmese. This month we all held a conference on the question. Most of the political officers are in favour of the change. The new idea is to produce textbooks in Chin, erect a school house in every village of considerable size, place a teacher there who will teach the boys and girls to read in their own language and, through that, other subjects to the fourth year. In the meantime, Burmese will still be taught at the stations (that is, in Tiddim, Falam, and Haka). In the mission schools all the children are now taught to read little Chin, enough so that they can sing and read the few portions of the Bible which have been translated.[xxi]
The meeting resulted in the change of the medium from Burmese to the Zo language at the primary level. Burmese was, however, continued to be used in the higher grades in the schools at Tedim, Falam, and Haka. The following year another conference, held at Maymyo, recommended the use of Laizo or the Falam dialect, and that English and Burmese to be the second languages. As there was no consensus on orthography a sub-committee, one of the members being Cope, was formed, which also could produce no agreement. The Maymyo recommendation did not prove satisfactory as the Laizo dialect was not popular in the Tedim area. Accordingly Colonel Burne asked Cope in 1924 to prepare text books in two languages- one in Kamhau-Sukte for Tedim and the other in Laizo for Falam and Haka. Cope was elated for reasons he had explained to the Field Secretary of the Baptist Mission in Rangoon:
We have the opportunity of a lifetime here in the Hills and want to take advantage of it. It means also an advance in our work even if there were no more missionaries or helpers. At first the large majority of teachers in the Haka and Falam subdivisions will be Christians and everyone will be an evangelist. It means also that one language will slowly come to dominate the lower two-thirds of the Hills and one in the Tiddim subdivision, thus doing away with the most exasperating obstacle to the progress of work here in this field. It will mean more so solidarity in the work and in the people.[xxii]
The relationship between the Government and the Missions had now become healthier and a new policy of streamlining education was set in place. In May 1924 Cope was offered and accepted the post of Honorary Inspector of Schools by which all schools came under his control. This meant that the Mission schools also came under the Government. The Burmese script and language was dropped altogether and replaced by the Roman-alphabet and vernacular language. Cope was commissioned to write textbooks from primary to the fourth standard in local dialects on all subjects taught in the schools for three subdivisions of Falam, Haka and Tedim. He ultimately wrote thirty five textbooks and readers in six different Zo dialects, on different subjects such as geography, hygiene, nature study, history and arithmetic. What Cope achieved in practical terms was the reduction of over forty dialects into three lingua franca namely: Tedim, Falam and Haka.[xxiii]
Government subsidies to Mission schools ceased in 1925. Till the year 1924 Mission schools all over the Chin Hills received Rs.833 from the Government and Rs. 455 from local contributions. The changeover from Burmese to Zo language as the medium of instruction made the schools into Anglo-Vernacular Middle Schools with upto the 7th standard, which appeared more attractive to the boys and girls. Meanwhile, for Gurkhas, Chinese, Burmese and Indian children who could not understand the vernacular a Non-Zo School was established in the cantonment area of Falam. Subsequently, in 1935 the first high school with 8th standard was started in Falam. It was a result of the persistent efforts made by three students from Tedim viz., Song Pau of Tedim, Neng Za Gin of Phunom, and S T Hau Go of Lailui. The Falam high school became the basis, as S T Hau Go noted, for forging the unity of the Zo people of Haka, Falam and Tedim in spirit, language and other nation-building activities.[xxiv]
Since the American missionaries were not able to visit every village, their work was extended by the Karen Christian teachers. Gradually educated Zo people continued the work of evangelisation. Those who became Christian and were trained and educated were employed in the ministries. Statistics show that numbers of organised Churches soared up from 12 in 1924 to 60 in 1937 in the Haka, Falam and Tedim areas. After the incorporation of Pakokku Hill Tracts into Chin Hills in 1930, villages in the south including Matu, Khrum, and Kanpetlet had been visited by northern missionaries. In the Kanpetlet subdivision there were three Government schools, all teaching in Burmese. Curiously there was one Christian in the whole Kanpetlet area.[xxv] It has come to light from the foregoing discussion that Christian missionaries had effectively employed education and medical health to cause transition in the socio-cultural and religious lives of the people. Strikingly enough, the influence of education and medical health had transcended beyond the cosmological arena of the indigenous Zo society. While it is apt to say that education opened the mind medical health no less transformed the heart and healed the body. The influences of the two undoubtedly facilitated Christian conversions among the Zos
[i] This article is part of my paper “Religious Conversions Reconsidered: Christian Mission and Indigenous movement among the Zo people in Colonial Chin Hills,” presented at the International Seminar on, Encounter and Interventions: History of Christian Missionary endeavour in British North East India, organised by Department of History, Assam University, Silchar in collaboration with Queen’s University, Belfast during 17-18 March, 2008.
[ii] Robert G. Johnson, History of the American Baptist Chin Mission, Vol.1, Valley Forge, USA, 1998, p.54.
[iii] Johnson, p.58
[iv] E.H.East, Burma Manuscript, Edited by C. Thang Za Tuan, Yangon, Myanmar 1996, p.49.
[v] Johnson, p.274.
[vi] Johnson, p.273; Dr East thus wrote; “They often tell us, we have now done all our customs teach us, and all that our witch doctors know. We have sacrificed mythun, cows, pigs, goats, chickens, and dogs, and still we are no better; now we are as fools, we know no more. Now we come to you. Your are like god. What can you do for us? We will give you a rupee if you cure us.”
[vii] For detail analysis of missionaries encounter with colonial rulers, see Pum Khan Pau, The Chins and the British, 1835-1935, Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of History, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 2006.
[viii] E.H.East, pp.60-61.
[ix] Laura Hardin Carson, Pioneer Trails, Trials and Triumphs, Calcutta 1927, Reprint Aizawl 1997.pp. 180-181. It was at Khuasak that the first hill Chin Christian converts had been baptised.
[x] E.H.East, pp.60-61. The British Superintendent of Chin Hills L.E.L.Burne in 1908 reported that when Rev. A.E.Carson died on 1 April 1908 there were already 55 Chin Christians, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1907-08.
[xi] Johnson, p.140
[xii] See Shwe Zan’s letter date 25 July 1904 from Khuasak village to Dr East quoted in Laura Hardin, op.cit. pp.180-181, in which he inter alia says of the converts: “One man name’s Tum Harm (Thuam Hang); he is chief among the three chiefs. Now he begin to believe Jesus. This night he come up to me for praying God. Dear master, please remember for Tum Harm in your prayer. O my dear master if you arrive here this time, how you will be very glad for Christ.
“As to school the people begin to build the school now. They got some post to the school place; in a few days I think school will finish. Some time I wrote about to stop school until the school (house) finish, and you tell I must stop; but I think in my heart it is better to learn every day so that I have school in my house”.
[xiii] E.H.East, p.193.
[xiv] E.H.East, p.194; A Zo leader Rev. Max Vai Pum in his work “The Beginning of formal Education in the Chin Hills”, Falam High School Diamond Jubilee Magazine (1906-1981) also writes the attitude of the Chins and chief thus: “Unfortunately things did not turn up so, for formal education at the onset did not seize the fancy of the people and the state schools were abominations to the arrogant Chin chieftains. To them this education business was nothing less than a form of coercion, a virtual seduction towards change of religion, culture and tribal customs. The chiefs especially feared the prospect of losing their customary tributes”.
[xv] The uprising was a culmination of anti-colonial feeling which had been developed following annexation. For more discussion, see Pum Khan Pau, “The Haka Uprising, 1917-1918,” in Chin Students Association Golden Jubilee Souvenir, Lamka, 2006, pp.62-67.
[xvi] L.E.L.Burne, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1908-09.
[xvii] LEL Burne, Report 1908-09, The buildings, which include a large class-room, quarters for the teacher and a dormitory for the boys were erected entirely at the expense of the Zos, who not only supplied all the necessary materials, but employed Zo labour for the actual building work. There are now 50 pupils attending the school and about another 30 seeking admission which it is impossible to grant. The services of an additional teacher are required.
[xviii] Johnson, p.287
[xix] Johnson, p.283
[xx] L.E.L.Burne, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1920-21
[xxi] Johnson, p.458
[xxii] Johnson, p.461; Cope’s letter to Wiatt, the Field Secretary to Rangoon, 24 April 1924.
[xxiii] Sukte T. Hau Go, “How Falam Got Her High School” Falam High School Diamond Jubilee Magazine (1906-1981) p.66.
[xxiv] S T Hau Go, p.67
[xxv] Johnson, pp.540-541
Dr Pum Khan Pau
Christian missionaries were some of the most influential actors which brought significant changes in the host environment. They came as stranger, but psychologically and professionally prepared, to an unfamiliar environment with the objective to bring transition in the host society. The primary tools often used by them to facilitate transition were the introduction of education and medical health. It is from this perspective that the present paper seeks to study the influences of education and medical health in order to understand the whole gamut of Christian conversion among the Zo people in colonial Chin Hills.
The earliest Christian missionaries in Chin Hills, Rev. Arthur E. Carson and his wife Laura Hardin Carson from the American Baptist Mission, reached Haka on 15 March, 1899. They first laid the foundation of Christianity in Chin hills. Though it took some time to gain substantial results, ultimately it was this missionary couple and their successors who apparently brought spiritual as well as physical enlightenment to the indigenous people. The socio-economic, cultural and religious developments of the Zo people today can thus be truly attributed to the works of Christian missionaries who first spread the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
Missionary activities may be closely intertwined with educational and medical activities. One of the foremost tasks of the missionaries among the Zo people was to heal the soul as well as the body. “Building a house and a schoolhouse were the first concerns of the Carsons’,[ii] wrote Robert G. Johnson, which clearly underscored the importance of education to evangelical work. He further says that Carson was very much concern about extending medical services to the people who were badly in need of them in order to bring them to Christianity. In his letter to the Mission Board, Carson addressed:
Every disease, and they are heir to them all, is assigned to possession or influence of evil spirits, and sacrifice and feasting is the remedy…We are sure that a medical missionary, beside the immense amount of suffering he could relieve, could unlock the hearts of this simple people as no other could.[iii]
Dr Erik Hjalmar East, a Swedish born American, was the first medical missionary, who reached the Chin Hills on 22 March, 1902. Barely after staying for two months Dr East soon left the Chin Hills because of illness. His first impression during his brief stay, however, intelligibly stressed the need for medical work:
My first impression was that the Chins certainly were in need of help, as the blind lame, wounded, fever stricken, lepers and skin diseases came. Secondly, I was convinced that this people were in need of a thorough cleansing from top to toe as I had never seen human beings so completely encrusted with a covering of dirt. In the third place I was convinced that the soap I brought would come in handy and more so as I was told that they never wash themselves or their children. [iv]
On 28 December, 1903, Dr East, this time with his new bride Emily Johnson, returned to Haka with a strong conviction “to break down the influence of the priests and the witch doctor”. He started giving treatments to sick persons, distributing drugs to villages and at the same time preaching the Gospel. In 1904 alone treatments were given to 4,000 patients. Dispensaries were opened up in important villages. Medicines were stored in schools where teachers, who had been trained to give treatment on certain common diseases, also performed basic treatment to patients. The most common diseases were malaria, rheumatism, toothache, goiter, fever, eye trouble etc.
Since it became quite expensive and difficult for the medical doctors to make tour to the villages it was proposed that the sick persons should also be brought to the Haka hospital for treatment. The Emily Tyzzer Memorial Hospital at Haka was established in 1907. The hospital, however, did not really serve the purpose as it was believed. Report of 1909 revealed that only 21 inpatients had been registered at the hospital that year whereas there were more than 5000 new patients on record. “The reason for so few have availed themselves of the hospital accommodation”, wrote Dr East, “is due to the fact that it is looked upon as a calamity to be away from the hearthstone in case that death should come while away. To be happy after death a Chin must die in his home and by his fireside.”[v] Besides the people also had “prejudiced against a man who claims to be a medicine chief and cannot cure all his chronic troubles with a pill or by rubbing something on two or three times”. A time comes when they lost all hopes in their traditional methods. “They come to us as a last resort”, lamented East, “when hope, means and strength are absolutely gone.”[vi]
Education also played significant role in evangelism. The first school was introduced by Carson at Haka in June 1900, which was later closed down because of strong opposition from a Burman sergeant of the Military Police.[vii] It was, however, reopened on 21 March 1902 after the arrival of Dr Erik Hjalmar East, a medical doctor, and Saya Shwe Zan, another Karen preacher and teacher. That same year a second school was opened at Tedim with one Po Ku as the teacher followed by the third school at Khuasak in the Tedim Subdivision on 31 March 1904. It was at Khuasak village, which Dr East described “one of the most Godless places on the earth”[viii], that wonderfully the first converts —Thuam Hang and his wife Dim Khaw Cing, and Pau Suan and his wife Kham Ciang—were gained. On hearing this great news Dr E. H. East, who later baptised them,[ix] jubilantly exclaimed: “Truly, when this letter came from Schwe Zan, Mrs East and I laughed and cried and shouted: ‘the King of Glory had surely made His entrance into the Chin Hills. The bells of heaven were ringing as the Shepherd brought home the lost sheep.’ It was too wonderful!”.[x]
Having been strongly encouraged by the permission given by the Kamhau Chief Hau Cin Khup of Tonzang, a school was started there in 1904. The Chief also gave permission to build a schoolhouse and a teacher’s house. Po Ku, the Karen teacher started the school with two students namely Son Vung and Hen Za Kam from Tuitum village. These two students later became the first Christian from Tonzang area. They were baptised by Dr East on 27 February 1906 in the presence of Chief Hau Cin Khup and all the villagers. The same year another school was started at Zokhua with Saya Ma Kya as teacher. Thus by 1905 there were altogether four schools with an attendance of 132 pupils. The small number of attendance also shows that there was an economic disadvantage in having children to go school because by sending it parents lost the service of their children.
In the early stages of its growth there were no girls enrolled in the school. In fact, Zo people seemed to have seen no value in the education of women. According to them girls had to work in the fields and in the home and so could not be spared. Educating a girl was nonproductive, for they thought girls would only get married, have a family, and be occupied in agricultural and domestic chores. Besides they considered educated girls would not be properly submissive to their husbands. Knowing this, Laura Carson devoted her considerable energies to getting hold of the girls:
My plan (she wrote) is to attract them at first by starting a sewing class and telling the girls that as soon as one is able to cut out and make a jacket neatly she shall have it. While teaching them to sew I hope to be able to teach them a good many other things and to get them interested in learning to read and so to open up a new world to them.[xi]
Laura Carson succeeded in getting the girls in her sewing classes. Mah Seh a woman teacher was brought up at Haka. There was, however, only one girl student in 1906.
When the Baptist Mission Burma in Boston reorganised the Chin Mission into the northern and southern regions on 1 October 1909, a second station was established at Tedim and John Herbert Cope, who recently arrived at Haka, was placed in charge of it. Unlike the situation in Haka[xii] there was considerable opposition by the chiefs to schools in Falam. What the chief of Seipi village told the Superintendent and Dr East at a conference in June 1909 explains why: “Chong In Kadu Vantsung Jesu Kan dulo. Ar le vock Kan tshoi lo a stshun Kan thi lai, she ranga Jesu thorng Kan duh la” (school I want, the Heavenly Jesus I don’t want. If we do not sacrifice chickens and pigs we die, therefore, I don’t want the Jesus custom).[xiii] Evidently, the chief wanted education without Christianity to which the missionaries could not agree. Dr East thus told the Superintendent that “we would not for a moment consider any school without religious teaching, and that our prime object was and is to spread the Gospel, and while doing so, we are willing to educate the people also”. The Superintendent remained unmoved. The school at Laizo and Lumbang were accordingly closed. Disappointed with the Government attitude Dr East wrote:
The whole thing goes to show that even here, among wild tribes, the powers that be representing a (sic) Christian Missionaries are not always as they should be; but on the contrary try to block their work wherever possible by veiled diplomatic tricks, for such I am sure this was. But we have no right to blame the British Government, as in the farflung provinces it usually depends upon some unfriendly sub-officials who must elevate himself by hindering such as are willing to rescue the perishing and care for the dying.[xiv]
When Dr East left the Chin Hills on October 1910 for failure of his health there were 5 primary schools with 231 students including 20 girls. The medium of instruction at that time was Burmese.
In 1911 there were 6 primary schools of which two registered with the Government namely, Khuasak (I January 1911) and Haka schools. However, there was a sharp decline in their number. In 1912 only two schools remained functioning. The number of students dropped from 180 in 1911 to a mere 60 in 1912. It is possible that the four unregistered night schools ceased to function; one of the causes of the decline was certainly the opposition of Chief Hau Cin Khup who gave permission for the school but became nervous with the growth of Christianity in his tract. He was uncompromising towards Christians and even ordered Po Ku, the teacher, out of the village. He also dismantled the Tonzang School which eventually ceased to exist.
The functioning of the schools was again interrupted by the Haka uprising of 1917[xv] that resulted in the closure of a few schools. But these reopened again after its suppression and in 1920 there were 6 primary schools with 175 students and 11 teachers. In 1922 the Haka school was upgraded to middle school (7th standard) and the following year Khuasak school was also raised to secondary standard. In 1935 the statistics of the educational schools show that there remained only 3 primary schools with the Missions having 75 pupils. The fall in the number this time was due mainly to Government’s absorption of the schools.
It was nearly after a decade of the first Mission school that the British Government took some interest in education. The first Government primary school was established at Falam in 1908. In the month of January in the following year the Government sanctioned an allowance of Rs. 2 per month for each student. The Government too started providing pupils with meals which had been the long demand of the Zos. This remarkably improved the attendance.[xvi]
On 25 June 1909 a Government Vernacular School was opened at Tedim.[xvii] In 1913 a boarding school was introduced in Tedim. The opening of Government schools adversely affected the Mission schools and Dr East lamented that this totally wiped out the “golden opportunity” for the missionaries.[xviii] There was much rivalry and little cooperation between the Government and the Mission in the early years of Dr East’s period. While the Missions employed Christian Karen teachers who strictly followed their policy to inculcate Christian faith through teaching and preaching, Buddhist Burmans and Hindu or Muslim Indians who were in the service of the Government also became a stumbling block to the progress of education. Even, as Dr East remarked: “A certain Roman Catholic Government official did all he could secretly to undercut the mission program, while feigning friendship on the surface.”[xix] Matters improved under Rev. John Herbert Cope who began to work in collaboration with the Government. He established personal friendship with the officials at all levels including Burmese and Indian. After 1921 the Government began to take a keener interest in the education provided by the Mission. The attitude of the Chiefs and headmen too gradually changed and they became, after many of them were converted, helpful to the Mission.
In June 1921, Colonel L E L Burne, the Superintendent and the Battalion Commander, held a meeting at Falam to discuss the merits of change of the medium of instruction in the schools. It was attended by Herbert Cope, and the Assistant Superintendents. Burne reported the view of the conference:
The opinion of the majority was that the present system of education was not the best suited to the needs of the people of these hills, and that Chins should replace Burmese as the medium of instruction. Burmese would not be abolished altogether, except in the village schools, but would be taken as a second language.
The technical school at Falam continues to impart instruction in carpentry and masonry, and the question of extending the subjects to be taught is receiving attention.[xx]
Writing to his friends Cope also said:
I am very glad that the present officers are advocating the education of the Chins in their own language. Now we are educating the Chins through Burmese. This month we all held a conference on the question. Most of the political officers are in favour of the change. The new idea is to produce textbooks in Chin, erect a school house in every village of considerable size, place a teacher there who will teach the boys and girls to read in their own language and, through that, other subjects to the fourth year. In the meantime, Burmese will still be taught at the stations (that is, in Tiddim, Falam, and Haka). In the mission schools all the children are now taught to read little Chin, enough so that they can sing and read the few portions of the Bible which have been translated.[xxi]
The meeting resulted in the change of the medium from Burmese to the Zo language at the primary level. Burmese was, however, continued to be used in the higher grades in the schools at Tedim, Falam, and Haka. The following year another conference, held at Maymyo, recommended the use of Laizo or the Falam dialect, and that English and Burmese to be the second languages. As there was no consensus on orthography a sub-committee, one of the members being Cope, was formed, which also could produce no agreement. The Maymyo recommendation did not prove satisfactory as the Laizo dialect was not popular in the Tedim area. Accordingly Colonel Burne asked Cope in 1924 to prepare text books in two languages- one in Kamhau-Sukte for Tedim and the other in Laizo for Falam and Haka. Cope was elated for reasons he had explained to the Field Secretary of the Baptist Mission in Rangoon:
We have the opportunity of a lifetime here in the Hills and want to take advantage of it. It means also an advance in our work even if there were no more missionaries or helpers. At first the large majority of teachers in the Haka and Falam subdivisions will be Christians and everyone will be an evangelist. It means also that one language will slowly come to dominate the lower two-thirds of the Hills and one in the Tiddim subdivision, thus doing away with the most exasperating obstacle to the progress of work here in this field. It will mean more so solidarity in the work and in the people.[xxii]
The relationship between the Government and the Missions had now become healthier and a new policy of streamlining education was set in place. In May 1924 Cope was offered and accepted the post of Honorary Inspector of Schools by which all schools came under his control. This meant that the Mission schools also came under the Government. The Burmese script and language was dropped altogether and replaced by the Roman-alphabet and vernacular language. Cope was commissioned to write textbooks from primary to the fourth standard in local dialects on all subjects taught in the schools for three subdivisions of Falam, Haka and Tedim. He ultimately wrote thirty five textbooks and readers in six different Zo dialects, on different subjects such as geography, hygiene, nature study, history and arithmetic. What Cope achieved in practical terms was the reduction of over forty dialects into three lingua franca namely: Tedim, Falam and Haka.[xxiii]
Government subsidies to Mission schools ceased in 1925. Till the year 1924 Mission schools all over the Chin Hills received Rs.833 from the Government and Rs. 455 from local contributions. The changeover from Burmese to Zo language as the medium of instruction made the schools into Anglo-Vernacular Middle Schools with upto the 7th standard, which appeared more attractive to the boys and girls. Meanwhile, for Gurkhas, Chinese, Burmese and Indian children who could not understand the vernacular a Non-Zo School was established in the cantonment area of Falam. Subsequently, in 1935 the first high school with 8th standard was started in Falam. It was a result of the persistent efforts made by three students from Tedim viz., Song Pau of Tedim, Neng Za Gin of Phunom, and S T Hau Go of Lailui. The Falam high school became the basis, as S T Hau Go noted, for forging the unity of the Zo people of Haka, Falam and Tedim in spirit, language and other nation-building activities.[xxiv]
Since the American missionaries were not able to visit every village, their work was extended by the Karen Christian teachers. Gradually educated Zo people continued the work of evangelisation. Those who became Christian and were trained and educated were employed in the ministries. Statistics show that numbers of organised Churches soared up from 12 in 1924 to 60 in 1937 in the Haka, Falam and Tedim areas. After the incorporation of Pakokku Hill Tracts into Chin Hills in 1930, villages in the south including Matu, Khrum, and Kanpetlet had been visited by northern missionaries. In the Kanpetlet subdivision there were three Government schools, all teaching in Burmese. Curiously there was one Christian in the whole Kanpetlet area.[xxv] It has come to light from the foregoing discussion that Christian missionaries had effectively employed education and medical health to cause transition in the socio-cultural and religious lives of the people. Strikingly enough, the influence of education and medical health had transcended beyond the cosmological arena of the indigenous Zo society. While it is apt to say that education opened the mind medical health no less transformed the heart and healed the body. The influences of the two undoubtedly facilitated Christian conversions among the Zos
[i] This article is part of my paper “Religious Conversions Reconsidered: Christian Mission and Indigenous movement among the Zo people in Colonial Chin Hills,” presented at the International Seminar on, Encounter and Interventions: History of Christian Missionary endeavour in British North East India, organised by Department of History, Assam University, Silchar in collaboration with Queen’s University, Belfast during 17-18 March, 2008.
[ii] Robert G. Johnson, History of the American Baptist Chin Mission, Vol.1, Valley Forge, USA, 1998, p.54.
[iii] Johnson, p.58
[iv] E.H.East, Burma Manuscript, Edited by C. Thang Za Tuan, Yangon, Myanmar 1996, p.49.
[v] Johnson, p.274.
[vi] Johnson, p.273; Dr East thus wrote; “They often tell us, we have now done all our customs teach us, and all that our witch doctors know. We have sacrificed mythun, cows, pigs, goats, chickens, and dogs, and still we are no better; now we are as fools, we know no more. Now we come to you. Your are like god. What can you do for us? We will give you a rupee if you cure us.”
[vii] For detail analysis of missionaries encounter with colonial rulers, see Pum Khan Pau, The Chins and the British, 1835-1935, Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of History, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 2006.
[viii] E.H.East, pp.60-61.
[ix] Laura Hardin Carson, Pioneer Trails, Trials and Triumphs, Calcutta 1927, Reprint Aizawl 1997.pp. 180-181. It was at Khuasak that the first hill Chin Christian converts had been baptised.
[x] E.H.East, pp.60-61. The British Superintendent of Chin Hills L.E.L.Burne in 1908 reported that when Rev. A.E.Carson died on 1 April 1908 there were already 55 Chin Christians, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1907-08.
[xi] Johnson, p.140
[xii] See Shwe Zan’s letter date 25 July 1904 from Khuasak village to Dr East quoted in Laura Hardin, op.cit. pp.180-181, in which he inter alia says of the converts: “One man name’s Tum Harm (Thuam Hang); he is chief among the three chiefs. Now he begin to believe Jesus. This night he come up to me for praying God. Dear master, please remember for Tum Harm in your prayer. O my dear master if you arrive here this time, how you will be very glad for Christ.
“As to school the people begin to build the school now. They got some post to the school place; in a few days I think school will finish. Some time I wrote about to stop school until the school (house) finish, and you tell I must stop; but I think in my heart it is better to learn every day so that I have school in my house”.
[xiii] E.H.East, p.193.
[xiv] E.H.East, p.194; A Zo leader Rev. Max Vai Pum in his work “The Beginning of formal Education in the Chin Hills”, Falam High School Diamond Jubilee Magazine (1906-1981) also writes the attitude of the Chins and chief thus: “Unfortunately things did not turn up so, for formal education at the onset did not seize the fancy of the people and the state schools were abominations to the arrogant Chin chieftains. To them this education business was nothing less than a form of coercion, a virtual seduction towards change of religion, culture and tribal customs. The chiefs especially feared the prospect of losing their customary tributes”.
[xv] The uprising was a culmination of anti-colonial feeling which had been developed following annexation. For more discussion, see Pum Khan Pau, “The Haka Uprising, 1917-1918,” in Chin Students Association Golden Jubilee Souvenir, Lamka, 2006, pp.62-67.
[xvi] L.E.L.Burne, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1908-09.
[xvii] LEL Burne, Report 1908-09, The buildings, which include a large class-room, quarters for the teacher and a dormitory for the boys were erected entirely at the expense of the Zos, who not only supplied all the necessary materials, but employed Zo labour for the actual building work. There are now 50 pupils attending the school and about another 30 seeking admission which it is impossible to grant. The services of an additional teacher are required.
[xviii] Johnson, p.287
[xix] Johnson, p.283
[xx] L.E.L.Burne, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1920-21
[xxi] Johnson, p.458
[xxii] Johnson, p.461; Cope’s letter to Wiatt, the Field Secretary to Rangoon, 24 April 1924.
[xxiii] Sukte T. Hau Go, “How Falam Got Her High School” Falam High School Diamond Jubilee Magazine (1906-1981) p.66.
[xxiv] S T Hau Go, p.67
[xxv] Johnson, pp.540-541
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